What word names a black layer of dirt that has built up on a surface?

A biography said "it was by dying when he did," in 1863, that which Confederate general achieved his military fame? Which biographical reference work was first published in London in 1849? "A Bird's-Eye View of Paris" and "The Bells" are chapters in which 1831 novel? A black cat in 1969 and a fan's grab at a foul ball in 2003 have been blamed for the woes of which baseball team? A blinding light suddenly turns which actor's character into a genius in the 1996 film "Phenomenon"? What word names both a dog breed known for its blue-black tongue and a slang term for food? Which NFL team's logo is a blue star with a white outline? Bluefish, especially young ones, are commonly called by which name, a nod to their sharp-toothed bite?